an embrace of modern principles. In Iran, the clash between tradition and modernity gained significant momentum in the late Naser al-Din Shah era, culminating in the establishment of the Constitutional Monarchy during Mozaffar al-Din Shah’s reign. This occurred within a society predominantly comprising uneducated peasants who, facing tyranny, sought refuge primarily within the religious community. Consequently, religious intellectuals were uniquely positioned to enlighten the populace. This research explores the views of the people and the extent of self-criticism among religious intellectuals during the Constitutional Era, as reflected in their memoirs.



The core question is: How did these religious intellectuals, in their memoirs, perceive the populace and its engagement with the Constitutional movement? Furthermore, did they express self-criticism regarding their own endeavors to educate the public on the Constitutional system’s foundational principles? The hypothesis suggests that the depiction of the people in these intellectuals’ writings often underscores public ignorance. Moreover, the level of self-criticism among religious intellectuals varied, influenced by their political affiliations and intellectual perspectives. Employing a descriptive-analytical methodology, and analyzing twelve memoirs, it was found that the presence or absence of a partisan approach among these intellectuals significantly shaped their perceptions of the people and their proposed solutions for solidifying the Constitutional system. Notably, the highest degree of self-criticism was observed among those without explicit partisan ties. A recurring concern for these religious intellectuals was also the widespread ignorance of the people across various political, cultural, and economic spheres.